Everything about The History Of Technology totally explained
The
history of technology is the history of the
invention of
tools and techniques. Background knowledge has enabled people to create new things, and conversely, many scientific endeavors have become possible through
technologies which assist humans to travel to places we couldn't otherwise go, and probe the nature of the universe in more detail than our natural senses allow.
Technological artifacts are products of an
economy, a force for economic growth, and a large part of everyday life. Technological innovations affect, and are affected by, a society's cultural traditions. They also are a means to develop and project military power.
By period and geography
Early technology
Stone Age
During the
Stone Age, all humans had a lifestyle which involved limited use of tools and few if any permanent settlements. The first major technologies, then, were tied to survival, hunting, and food preparation in this environment. Fire, stone tools and weapons, and clothing were technological developments of major importance during this period. Stone Age cultures developed
music, and engaged in organized
warfare. A subset of Stone Age people developed ocean-worthy
outrigger ship technology, leading to an eastward
migration across the
Malay archipelago, across the
Indian ocean to
Madagascar and also across the
Pacific Ocean, which required knowledge of the ocean currents, weather patterns, sailing,
celestial navigation, and star maps. The early Stone Age is described as
Epipaleolithic or
Mesolithic. The former is generally used to describe the early Stone Age in areas with limited glacial impact. The later Stone Age, during which the rudiments of agricultural technology were developed, is called the
Neolithic period. During this period, polished
stone tools were made from a variety of hard rocks such as
flint,
jade,
jadeite and
greenstone, largely by working exposures as quarries, but later the valuable rocks were pursued by tunnelling underground, the first steps in mining technology. The polished axes were used for forest clearance and the establishment of crop farming, and were so effective as to remain in use when bronze and iron appeared.
Although Paleolithic cultures left no written records, the shift from nomadic life to settlement and agriculture can be inferred from a range of archaeological evidence. Such evidence includes ancient tools
(External Link
),
cave paintings, and other
prehistoric art, such as the
Venus of Willendorf. Human remains also provide direct evidence, both through the examination of bones, and the study of
mummies. Though concrete evidence is limited, scientists and historians have been able to form significant inferences about the lifestyle and culture of various prehistoric peoples, and the role technology played in their lives.
Copper and Bronze Age
The Stone Age developed into the
Bronze Age after the
Neolithic Revolution. The Neolithic Revolution involved radical changes in agricultural technology which included
development of agriculture, animal
domestication, and the adoption of permanent settlements. These combined factors made possible the development of metal
smelting, with
copper and later
bronze, an alloy of
tin and copper, being the materials of choice, although polished stone tools continued to be used for a considerable time owing to their abundance compared with the less common metals (especially tin).
This technological trend apparently began in the
Fertile Crescent, and spread outward over time. It should be noted that these developments were not, and still are not, universal. The
Three-age system doesn't accurately describe the technology history of groups outside of
Eurasia, and doesn't apply at all in the case of some isolated populations, such as the
Spinifex People, the
Sentinelese, and various Amazonian tribes, which still make use of Stone Age technology, and have not developed agricultural or metal technology.
Iron Age
The
Iron Age involved the adoption of iron
smelting technology. It generally replaced bronze, and made it possible to produce tools which were stronger and cheaper to make than bronze equivalents. In many Eurasian cultures, the Iron Age was the last major step before the development of written language, though again this wasn't universally the case. It wasn't possible to mass manufacture steel because high furnace temperatures were needed, but
steel could be produced by
forging bloomery iron to reduce the carbon content in a controllable way. Iron ores were much more widespread than either copper or tin. In Europe, large
hill forts were built either as a refuge in time of war, or sometimes as permanent settlements. In some cases, existing forts from the Bronze Age were expanded and enlarged. The pace of land clearance using the more effective iron axes increased, providing more farmland to support the growing population.
By 1000 BC - 500 BC, the
Germanic tribes had a
Bronze Age civilization, while the
Celts were in the
Iron Age by the time of the
Hallstatt culture. Their cultures collided with the military and agricultural practices of the
Romans, leading those Europeans who were conquered to adopt Roman technological advances.
Ancient civilizations
It was the growth of the ancient civilizations which produced the greatest advances in technology and engineering, advances which stimulated other societies to adopt new ways of living and governance.
Egypt
The
Egyptians invented and used many simple machines, such as the
ramp to aid construction processes. They were among the first to extract
gold by large-scale mining using
fire-setting, and the first recognisable
map, the
Turin papyrus shows the plan of one such mine in
Nubia. Egyptian
paper, made from
papyrus, and
pottery was mass produced and exported throughout the
Mediterranean basin. The
wheel, however, didn't arrive until foreign invaders introduced the
chariot. They developed Mediterranean
maritime technology including ships and lighthouses.
For later technologies in
Ptolemaic Egypt,
Roman Egypt, and
Arab Egypt, see
Ancient Greek technology and innovation,
Roman technology and
Inventions in the Muslim world respectively.
India
The
Indus Valley Civilization, situated in a resource-rich area, is notable for its early application of city planning and sanitation technologies. Cites in the Indus Valley offer some of the first examples of closed gutters, public baths, and communal granaries. The
Takshashila University was an important seat of learning in the ancient world. It was the center of education for scholars from all over Asia. Many
Greek, Persian and
Chinese students studied here under great scholars including
Kautilya, Panini, Jivaka, and Vishnu Sharma.
Ancient India was also at the forefront of seafaring technology - a panel found at
Mohenjodaro, depicts a sailing craft. Ship construction is vividly described in the Yukti Kalpa Taru, an ancient Indian text on Shipbuilding. The Yukti Kalpa Taru, compiled by Bhoja Narapati is concerned with shipbuilding. (The Yukti Kalpa Taru had been translated and published by Prof. Aufrecht in his 'Catalogue of Sanskrit
Manuscripts').
Indian construction and architecture, called '
Vaastu Shastra', suggests a thorough understanding or materials engineering, hydrology, and sanitation. Ancient Indian culture was also pioneering in its use of vegetable dyes, cultivating plants including
indigo and
cinnabar. Many of the dyes were used in art and sculpture. The use of
perfumes demonstrates some knowledge of
chemistry, particularly
distillation and purification processes.
China
According to the Scottish researcher
Joseph Needham, the Chinese made many first-known discoveries and developments. Major technological contributions from China include early
seismological detectors,
matches,
paper,
sliding calipers, the double-action
piston pump,
cast iron, the iron
plough, the multi-tube
seed drill, the
wheelbarrow, the
suspension bridge, the
parachute,
natural gas as fuel, the
magnetic compass, the
raised-relief map, the
propeller, the
crossbow, the
South Pointing Chariot, and
gun powder. Other Chinese discoveries and inventions from the Medieval period, according to Joseph Needham's research, include: the
paddle wheel boat,
block printing and
movable type, phosphorescent paint,
chain drive, the
escapement mechanism, and the
spinning wheel.
The solid-fuel
rocket was invented in China about 1150, nearly 200 years after the invention of
black powder (which acted as the rocket's fuel). At the same time that the
age of exploration was occurring in the West, the Chinese emperors of the
Ming Dynasty also sent ships,
some reaching Africa. But the enterprises were not further funded, halting further exploration and development. When
Ferdinand Magellan's ships reached
Brunei in 1521, they found a wealthy city that had been fortified by Chinese engineers, and protected by a
breakwater.
Antonio Pigafetta noted that much of the technology of Brunei was equal to Western technology of the time. Also, there were more cannons in Brunei than on Magellan's ships, and the Chinese merchants to the Brunei court had sold them
spectacles and
porcelain, which were rarities in Europe. Chinese scientific understanding, however, was less developed than that in the West.
Greek and Hellenistic
Greek and
Hellenistic engineers invented many technologies and improved upon pre-existing technologies, particularly during the
Hellenistic period.
Heron of Alexandria invented a basic
steam engine and demonstrated knowledge of mechanic and pneumatic systems.
Archimedes invented several machines. The Greeks were unique in pre-industrial times in their ability to combine scientific research with the development of new technologies. One example is the
Archimedean screw; this technology was first conceptualized in mathematics, then built. Other technologies invented by Greek scientists include the
ballistae, and primitive
analog computers like the
Antikythera mechanism and the
piston pump. Greek architects were responsible for the first true
domes, and were the first to explore the
Golden ratio and its relationship with geometry and architecture.
Apart from
Hero of Alexandria's steam
aeolipile, Hellenistic technicians were the first to invent watermills and windwheels, making them global pioneers in three of the four known means of non-human propulsion prior to the Industrial Revolution (the fourth being sails). However, only water power became extensively used in antiquity.
Other Greek inventions include torsion catapults, pneumatic catapults, crossbows, cranes, rutways, organs, the keyboard mechanism, gears, differential gears, screws, refined parchment, showers, dry docks, diving bells, odometer and astrolabes. In architecture, Greek engineers constructed monumental lighthouses such as the
Pharos and devised the first central heating systems. The
Tunnel of Eupalinos is the earliest tunnel in history which has been excavated with a scientific approach from both ends.
Automata like vending machines, automatic doors and many other ingenious devices were first built by Hellenistic engineers as
Ctesibius,
Philo of Byzantium and Heron. Greek technological treatises were scrupuously studied and copied by later Byzantine, Arabic Latin European scholars and provided much of the foundation for further technological advances in these civilizations.
Roman
Romans developed an intensive and sophisticated agriculture, expanded upon existing iron working technology, created
laws providing for individual ownership, advanced stone masonry technology, advanced
road-building (exceeded only in the 19th century), military engineering, civil engineering, spinning and weaving and several different machines like the
Gallic reaper that helped to increase productivity in many sectors of the Roman economy. They also developed water power through building aqueducts on a grand scale, using water not just for drinking supplies but also for
irrigation, powering
water mills and in mining. They used drainage wheels extensively in deep underground mines, one device being the
reverse overshot water-wheel. They were the first to apply
hydraulic mining methods for prospecting for metal ores, and for extracting those ores from the ground when found using a method known as
hushing.
Roman engineers were the first to build monumental arches,
amphitheatres,
aqueducts,
public baths,
true arch bridges,
harbours,
reservoirs and
dams, vaults and domes on a very large scale across their Empire. Notable Roman inventions include the
book (Codex),
glass blowing and
concrete. Because Rome was located on a volcanic peninsula, with sand which contained suitable crystalline grains, the
concrete which the Romans formulated was especially durable. Some of their buildings have lasted 2000 years, to the present day.
Roman civilization was highly urbanized by pre-modern standards. Many cities of the
Imperium had over 100,000 inhabitants with the capital Rome being the largest metropolis of antiquity. Features of Roman urban life included multistory apartment buildings called
insulae, street paving, public flush toilets, glass windows and
floor and wall heating. The Romans understood
hydraulics and constructed
fountains and waterworks, particularly
aqueducts, which were the hallmark of their civilization. They exploited water power by building
water mills, sometimes in series, such as the sequence found at
Barbegal in southern
France. Some
Roman baths have lasted to this day. The Romans developed many technologies which were lost in the
Middle Ages, and were only fully reinvented in the 19th and 20th centuries. They also left texts describing their achievements, especially by
Pliny the Elder,
Frontinus and
Vitruvius.
Other less known Roman innovations were ship mills, arch dams and possibly
tide mills.
Inca
The engineering skills of the
Inca were great, even by today's standards. An example is the use of pieces weighing in upwards of one ton in their stonework (for example,
Machu Picchu in
Peru), placed together so that not even a blade can fit in-between the cracks. The villages used irrigation canals and
drainage systems, making agriculture very efficient. While some claim that the Incas were the first inventors of
hydroponics, their agricultural technology was still soil based, if advanced. This technology, including tiered farm plots, allowed significant yields from steeply sloped or otherwise unproductive land. They mined
gold extensively, one of the objects of the Spanish
conquistadors, and created a network of paths and roads connecting their many towns and villages. River gorges were crossed by roped
suspension bridges, the rope made by braiding grasses.
Maya
Though the
Maya civilization had no metallurgy or wheel technology, they developed complex writing and astrological systems, and created sculptural works in stone and flint. Like the Inca, the Maya also had command of fairly advanced agricultural and construction technology. Throughout this time period much of this construction, was made only by women, as men of the Maya civilization believed that females were responsible for the creation of new things.
Aztec
The main contribution of the
Aztec rule was a system of communications between the conquered cities. In
Mesoamerica, without draft animals for transport (nor, as a result, wheeled vehicles), the roads were designed for travel on foot, just like the Inca and Mayan civilizations. They developed large cities, such as
Tenochtitlan, which eventually became
Mexico City.
Medieval and Modern technologies
Muslim Agricultural Revolution
» Main articles: Muslim Agricultural Revolution and Inventions in the Muslim world
From the 8th century, the
medieval Islamic world witnessed a fundamental transformation in
agriculture known as the "
Muslim Agricultural Revolution", "
Arab Agricultural Revolution", or "
Green Revolution". Due to the
global economy established by Muslim traders across the
Old World during the "
Afro-Asiatic age of discovery" or "Pax Islamica", this enabled the
diffusion of many
crops, plants and
farming techniques between different parts of the Islamic world, as well as the adaptation of crops, plants and techniques from beyond the Islamic world, distributed throughout Islamic lands which normally wouldn't be able to grow these crops. which, along with an increased
mechanization of agriculture, led to major changes in
economy,
population distribution,
vegetation cover, agricultural production and
income, population levels,
urban growth, the distribution of the
labour force, linked
industries,
cooking and diet,
clothing, and numerous other aspects of life in the Islamic world.
Muslim engineers in the Islamic world were responsible for numerous innovative
industrial uses of
hydropower, the early industrial uses of
tidal power,
wind power, and
petroleum, and large
factory complexes (
tiraz in Arabic). The industrial uses of
watermills were in widespread use since the 8th century. A variety of industrial
mills were developed in the Islamic world, including
fulling mills,
gristmills,
hullers,
paper mills,
sawmills, shipmills,
stamp mills,
steel mills,
sugar mills,
tide mills, and
windmills. By the 11th century, every province throughout the Islamic world had these industrial mills in operation, from
al-Andalus and
North Africa to the
Middle East and
Central Asia. Muslim engineers helped develop
crankshafts and
water turbines. Much of the technology was however, well known in the
Roman world by this time and earlier.
A significant number of inventions were produced by Muslim scientists and engineers during this time, including inventors such as
Abbas Ibn Firnas,
Taqi al-Din, and especially
al-Jazari, who is considered the "father of robotics" Some of the developments from the
Islamic Golden Age include the
camera obscura,
coffee,
hang glider,
hard soap,
shampoo,
nitric acid,
alembic,
valve,
reciprocating,
combination lock,
quilting, pointed
arch, surgical
catgut,
windmill,
inoculation,
fountain pen,
cryptanalysis,
frequency analysis,
quartz glass,
Persian carpet, modern
cheque,
celestial globe,
explosive rockets and
incendiary devices.
Medieval Europe
Middle Ages may be best described as a symbiosis of
traditio et innovatio. While medieval technology has been long depicted as a step backwards in the evolution of Western technology, sometimes willfully so by modern authors intent on denouncing the church as antagonistic to scientific progress (see for example
flat earth myth), a generation of medievalists around the American historian of science
Lynn White stressed from the 1940s onwards the innovative character of many medieval techniques. Genuine medieval contributions include for example
mechanical clocks,
spectacles and
vertical windmills. Medieval ingenuity was also displayed in the invention of seemingly inconspicuous items like the
watermark or the
functional button. In navigation, the foundation to the subsequent
age of exploration was laid by the introduction of
pintle-and-gudgeon rudders,
lateen sails,
the dry compassthe horseshoe and the
astrolab.
Significant advances were also made in military technology with the development of
plate armour,
steel crossbows,
counterweight trebuchets and
cannon. Perhaps best known are the Middle Ages for their architectural heritage: While the invention of the
rib vault and
pointed arch gave rise to the high rising
Gothic style, the ubiquitous medieval fortifications gave the era the almost proverbial title of the 'age of castles'.
Renaissance
The era is marked by such profound technical advancements like the
printing press,
linear perspectivity,
patent law,
double shell domes or
Bastion fortresses. Note books of the Renaissance artist-engineers such as
Taccola and
Leonardo da Vinci give a deep insight into the mechanical technology then known and applied. Architects and engineers were inspired by the structures of
Ancient Rome, and men like
Brunelleschi created the large dome of
Florence Cathedral as a result. He was awarded one of the first
patents ever issued in order to protect an ingenious
crane he designed to raise the large masonry stones to the top of the structure. Military technology developed rapidly with the widespread use of the
cross-bow and ever more powerful
artillery, as the city-states of
Italy were usually in conflict with one another. Powerful families like the
Medici were strong patrons of the arts and sciences.
Age of Exploration
The sailing ship (Nau or
Carrack) enabled the
Age of Exploration with the
European colonization of the Americas, epitomized by
Francis Bacon's
The New Atlantis. Pioneers like
Vasco de Gama,
Cabral,
Magellan and
Christopher Columbus explored the world in search of new trade routes for their goods and contacts with Africa,
India and
China which shortened the journey compared with traditional routes overland. They also re-discovered the
Americas while doing so. They produced new maps and charts which enabled following mariners to explore further with greater confidence. Navigation was generally difficult however owing to the problem of longitude and the absence of accurate
chronometers. European powers rediscovered the idea of the
Civil code, lost since the time of the Ancient Greeks.
Industrial Revolution
British
Industrial Revolution is characterized by developments in the areas of
textile manufacturing,
mining,
metallurgy and
transport driven by the development of the
steam engine. Above all else, the revolution was driven by cheap energy in the form of
coal, produced in ever-increasing amounts from the abundant resources of
Britain. Coal converted to coke gave the
blast furnace and
cast iron in much larger amounts than before, and a range of structures could be created, such as
The Iron Bridge. Cheap coal meant that industry was no longer constrained by water resources driving the mills, although it continued as a valuable source of power. The steam engine helped drain the mines, so more coal reserves could be accessed, and the output of coal increased. The development of the high-pressure steam engine made locomotives possible, and a transport revolution followed.
19th century
The 19th century saw astonishing developments in transportation, construction, and communication technologies originating in Europe, especially in
Britain. The
Steam Engine which had existed since the early 18th century, was practically applied to both
steamboat and
railway transportation. The first purpose built railway line opened between Manchester and Liverpool in 1830, the
Rocket locomotive of
Robert Stephenson being one of the first working locomotives used on the line.
Telegraphy also developed into a practical technology in the 19th century to help run the railways safely.
Other technologies were explored for the first time, including the
Incandescent light bulb. The
Portsmouth Block Mills was where manufacture of ships' pulley blocks by all-metal machines first took place and instigated the age of
mass production.
Machine tools used by engineers to manufacture other machines began in the first decade of the century, notably by
Richard Roberts and
Joseph Whitworth.
Steamships were eventually completely iron-clad, and played a role in the opening of Japan and China to trade with the West. Mechanical computing was envisioned by
Charles Babbage but didn't come to fruition. The
Second Industrial Revolution at the end of the 19th century saw rapid development of chemical, electrical, petroleum, and steel technologies connected with highly structured technology research.
20th century
20th Century technology developed rapidly. Communication technology, transportation technology, broad teaching and implementation of
Scientific method, and increased research spending all contributed to the advancement of modern science and technology. Due to the scientific gains directly tied to military research and development, technologies including electronic
computing might have developed as rapidly as they did in part due to war.
Radio,
radar, and early
sound recording were key technologies which paved the way for the
telephone,
fax machine, and
magnetic storage of data. Energy and engine technology improvements were also vast, including
nuclear power, developed after the
Manhattan project. Transport by
rocketry: most work occurred in the
U.S. (Goddard),
Russia (Tsiolkovsky) and
Germany (Oberth). Making use of computers and advanced research labs, modern scientists have Recombinant
DNA.
21st century
Despite the fact we've just entered into the 21st century, technology is being developed even more rapidly, marked progress in almost all fields of science and technology has led to massive improvements to the technology we currently possess, the rate of development in computers being only one example at which the speed of progress continues forward, leading to the speculation of a
technological singularity occurring within this century. Current ongoing developments include research into the
scramjet,
nanotechnology,
bioengineering,
nuclear fusion, new developments in
armour, advanced materials and a plethora of other fields, leading to speculations among some circles of the development of devices such as powered armor in the near future.
Measuring technological progress
Many
sociologists and
anthropologists have created
social theories dealing with
social and
cultural evolution. Some, like
Lewis H. Morgan,
Leslie White, and
Gerhard Lenski, declare
technological progress to be the primary factor driving the development of human civilization. Morgan's concept of three major stages of social evolution (
savagery,
barbarism, and
civilization) can be divided by technological milestones, like fire, the
bow, and
pottery in the savage era,
domestication of animals,
agriculture, and
metalworking in the barbarian era and the
alphabet and
writing in the civilization era.
Instead of specific inventions, White decided that the measure by which to judge the evolution of culture was
energy. For White "the primary function of culture" is to "harness and control energy." White differentiates between five stages of human development: In the first, people use energy of their own muscles. In the second, they use energy of
domesticated animals. In the third, they use the energy of plants (
agricultural revolution). In the fourth, they learn to use the energy of natural resources: coal, oil, gas. In the fifth, they harness
nuclear energy. White introduced a formula P=E*T, where E is a measure of energy consumed, and T is the measure of efficiency of technical factors utilizing the energy. In his own words, "culture evolves as the amount of energy harnessed per capita per year is increased, or as the efficiency of the instrumental means of putting the energy to work is increased". Russian astronomer,
Nikolai Kardashev, extrapolated his theory creating the
Kardashev scale, which categorizes the energy use of advanced civilizations.
Lenski takes a more modern approach and focuses on
information. The more information and knowledge (especially allowing the shaping of natural environment) a given society has, the more advanced it is. He identifies four stages of human development, based on advances in the
history of communication. In the first stage, information is passed by
genes. In the second, when humans gain
sentience, they can
learn and pass information through by experience. In the third, the humans start using
signs and develop
logic. In the fourth, they can create
symbols, develop
language and
writing. Advancements in the technology of communication translates into advancements in the
economic system and
political system,
distribution of wealth,
social inequality and other spheres of social life. He also differentiates societies based on their level of technology, communication and economy: 1) hunters and gatherers, 2) simple agricultural, 3) advanced agricultural, 4) industrial 5) special (like fishing societies).
Finally, from the late 1970s sociologists and anthropologists like
Alvin Toffler (author of
Future Shock),
Daniel Bell and
John Naisbitt have approached the theories of
post-industrial societies, arguing that the current era of
industrial society is coming to an end, and
services and information are becoming more important than
industry and
goods. Some of the more extreme visions of the post-industrial society, especially in
fiction, are strikingly similar to the visions of near and post-
Singularity societies.
By type of technology
History of biotechnology
Timeline of agriculture and food technology
Hunter-gatherer
Agriculture
Food science
Genetically modified food
History of agricultural science
History of gardening
Biotechnology (timeline, etc.)
History of sushi
History of tea in China
History of civil engineering
To be incorporated:
Civil engineering
Architecture and building construction
Bridges, harbors, tunnels, dams
Surveying, instruments and maps, cartography, urban engineering, water supply and sewerage
History of communication
To be incorporated:
Communications
Writing systems
Telecommunications
History of mobile phones
History of animation
History of broadcasting
History of radar
History of radio
Printing
Cinema
Radio
Television
Internet
History of computing
History of computing hardware before 1960
History of computing hardware (1960s–present)
History of computer hardware in Soviet Bloc countries
History of computer science
History of operating systems
History of software engineering
History of programming languages
History of artificial intelligence
History of the graphical user interface
History of the Internet
History of the World Wide Web
History of computer and video games
History of consumer technology
To be incorporated:
Timeline of lighting technology
History of textiles and clothing
History of materials science
Family and consumer science
History of knitting
History of lensmaking
History of the chair
History of the umbrella
Manufacturing
History of electrical engineering
To be incorporated:
History of street lighting in the United States
History of energy technology
To be incorporated:
Energy (History, Use by humans, See also)
History of coal mining
History of perpetual motion machines
Timeline of steam power
Timeline of alcohol fuel
Timeline of nuclear fusion
History of materials science
To be incorporated:
Timeline of materials technology
Metallurgy
Materials and processing
History of measurement
To be incorporated:
History of time in the United States
Timeline of time measurement technology
History of medicine
History of military technology
History of nuclear technology
Manhattan Project
Atomic Age
Nuclear testing
Nuclear arms race
History of science and technology
History of telescopes
Timeline of telescopes, observatories, and observing technology
Timeline of microscope technology
Timeline of particle physics technology
Timeline of low-temperature technology
Timeline of temperature and pressure measurement technology
History of transport technology
Timeline of motor and engine technology
Timeline of photography technology
Timeline of rocket and missile technology
Timeline of communication technologyFurther Information
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